Lesson 2

2.1. The Nominal Sentence

Schema: Predicate Noun - Subject

e.g. devo viṣṇuḥ = देवो विष्णुः = "Viṣṇu is a god."

A verbal copula ("is", "are", "am", "art", "be") is not necessary, but may sometimes occur.

There are no articles: devaḥ -- देवः can mean "the god" or "a god".

Although in Sanskrit the word order is quite free (especially in verses), when translating a nominal sentence one must always primarily consider a translation according to the above standard schema.

In the nominal sentence, the subject is in the nominative (first case = prathamā f. = प्रथमा). The predicate noun agrees with the subject in number and case; if the predicate noun is an adjective, it also agrees in gender.

2.2. On Declension (Inflection of Nouns)

In Sanskrit there are:

three numbers (forms of counting) = vacana n. -- वचन
Singular (singular number) = ekavacana n. -- एकवचन
Dual (dual number) = dvivacana n. -- द्विवचन
Plural (plural number) = bahuvacana n. -- बहुवचन
three genders (grammatical genders) = liṅga n. / vyakti f. -- लिङ्ग / व्यक्ति
Masculine (masculine) = puṃs m. -- पुंस्
Feminine (feminine) = strī f. -- स्त्री
Neuter (neuter) = napuṃsaka n. -- नपुंसक
eight cases (cases) = sup -- सुप् (= case endings)

To declension, the case endings (sup = सुप्) are added to the so-called nominal stem (form of the noun without case endings).

Example: devas = देवस् (Nominative Singular Masculine) "the/a god" = deva- -- देव- (nominal stem) + -s -- -स् (case ending).

In Sanskrit dictionaries, nouns are listed under the nominal stem:
deva m. -- देव m. (masculine)
vacana n. -- वचन n. (neuter)
vyakti f. -- व्यक्ति f. (feminine)

2.3. The Nominative Singular

Nominative Singular = prathamā ekavacanam = प्रथमा एकवचनम्

The Nominative Singular ends in -s = -स् or is endingless.

2.3.1. Nominative Singular in -s

The following nominal stems, which end in a vowel, form the Nominative Singular with -s:

Masculines in -a: e.g. deva m. = देव "god" -- Nom. sg.: devas = देवस्
Masculines in -i: e.g. kavi m. = कवि "poet" -- Nom. sg.: kavis = कविस्
Masculines in -u: e.g. guru m. = गुरु "teacher" -- Nom. sg.: gurus = गुरुस्

2.4. Sandhi -- सन्धि

In Sanskrit, the final sound of a word is also determined by the initial sound of the following word. This phenomenon is called Sandhi (m.) = सन्धि ("connection").

2.4.1. Sandhi of final -s

See also the overview:

Payer, Alois (1944–): Sandhi of final -s. -- (Materials on Sanskrit). -- URL: http://www.payer.de/sanskritmaterialien/ssandhi.htm

Final -s:

in absolute final position (end of sentence) it becomes Visarga (-ḥ):
devas = देवस् » devaḥ = देवः
kavis = कविस् » kaviḥ = कविः
gurus = गुरुस् » guruḥ = गुरुः

before voiceless sounds:
before k, kh, p, ph and ś, ṣ, s: becomes Visarga (-ḥ)
devas + śivaḥ » devaḥ śivaḥ = देवः शिवः ("Śiva is a god")
before c, ch: becomes -ś
before ṭ, ṭh: becomes -ṣ
before t, th: remains -s
sādhus + caitanyas » sādhuś caitanyaḥ = साधुश्चैतन्यः ("Caitanya is a saint")

before voiced sounds:
after non-a vowels: becomes -r
kavis + Māghas » kavir māghaḥ = कविर्माघः ("Māgha is a poet")
after non-a vowels before r-: -s drops out, the vowel is lengthened.
gurus + rāmas » gurū rāmaḥ = गुरू रामः ("Rāma is a teacher")
after a-: -as
before voiced consonants/a: becomes -o (initial a drops away » ऽ)
devas viṣṇus » devo viṣṇuḥ = देवो विष्णुः
devas agnis » devo 'gniḥ = देवो ऽग्निः
before other vowels: becomes -a (Hiatus)
devas + indras » deva indraḥ = देव इन्द्रः

2.5. Word List

deva m. -- देव : Celestial being, god; prince, king.

īśvara m. -- ईश्वर : Lord, ruler, god (monotheistic).

brāhmaṇa m. -- ब्राह्मण : Brāhmaṇa (priestly class).

kṣatriya m. -- क्षत्रिय : Kṣatriya (warrior and ruling class).

vaiśya m. -- वैश्य : Vaiśya (merchant and agricultural class).

śūdra m. -- शूद्र : Śūdra (service class).

According to classical theory (e.g., Manusmṛti I, 88-91), the duties are distributed:

of the Brāhmaṇas
study of the Vedas
teaching (the Vedas)
sacrifice for oneself
sacrifice for others
giving (alms)
receiving gifts
of the Kṣatriyas
protecting the people
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Vaiśyas
cattle breeding
agriculture
trade
money lending
sacrificing for oneself
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Śūdras
serving the three upper classes

dvija m. -- द्विज : "twice-born" (initiates of the upper three varṇas: Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya).

varṇa m. -- वर्ण : color, birth status (aspiration).

The four varṇas (varṇa m.) are often confused with castes. However, the four varṇas -- unlike castes -- are not specifically Indian; in Europe as well, we had (partly up to the First World War) a system of estates, as evidenced by the following illustration from the 15th century:

Fig.: Representation of the estate division in medieval Europe (woodcut from the late 15th century).
(Image source: Details)

Labels:
Priestly estate (~Brāhmaṇa): Tu supplex ora = You pray supplicatingly!
Noble estate (~Kṣatriya): Tu protege = You protect!
Peasant estate (~Vaiśya/Śūdra): Tuque labora = And you work!

The three estates wear their respective estate attire. Above them -- thus designated as willed by God -- Christ reigns on his throne.

Max Weber (1864–1920) defines estate as follows:

»Estate« should mean a multitude of people who, within an association, effectively
a) claim an estate-specific special esteem, - possibly also
b) estate-specific special monopolies.

Estates can arise
a) primarily, through one's own estate-specific way of life, including in particular the type of profession (estate-based or profession-based estates),
b) secondarily, as hereditary charisma, through successful prestige claims based on estate-specific descent (birth estates),
c) through the estate-based appropriation of political or hierocratic lordships as monopolies (political or hierocratic estates).

The birth-estate development is regularly a form of (hereditary) appropriation of privileges to an association or to qualified individuals. Any fixed appropriation of opportunities, in particular [of] lordships [or income-generating] opportunities, tends to lead to the formation of estates. Any estate formation tends to lead to the monopolistic appropriation of lordships and income-generating opportunities.

While occupational classes grow on the basis of a market-oriented economy, estates arise and exist preferably on the basis of monopolistically led liturgical or feudal or estate-patrimonial provision of needs for associations.

»Estate-based« should denote a society when the social structure is primarily organized according to estates, »class-based«, if it occurs primarily according to classes. Of the »classes«, the »social« class is closest to the »estate«, and the »occupational class« is furthest away. Estates are often formed by property classes according to their main focus.

Every estate-based society is conventional, ordered by rules of life conduct, thereby creating economically irrational consumption conditions and hindering free market formation through monopolistic appropriations and by excluding the free disposal of one's own earning capacity.

[Weber, Max (1864–1920): Economy and Society : Outline of Interpretive Sociology. – 5th, revised ed. – Tübingen : Mohr, 1976. – p. 625 f.]

Varṇas are, accordingly, birth castes.

kavi m. -- कवि : poet.

agni m. -- अग्नि : fire, god Agni.

Fig.: God Agni, miniature painting, 18th century.
(Image source: Details)

sādhu 3 -- साधु : correct, good.

sādhu m. -- साधु : "holy" man, sādhu.

Fig.: Sādhu (साधु), Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu.
(Image source: Details)

guru 3 -- गुरु : heavy, significant, worthy of veneration

guru m. -- गुरु : person worthy of veneration: father, mother, elder relative, esp. teacher, master

2.6. Exercise

A) Insert the correct forms observing Sandhi and form nominal sentences:

1. devas ... (Śiva, Agni, Viṣṇu, Gaṇeśa, Kṛṣṇa, Indra)
   = देवस् ... (शिव, अग्नि, विष्णु, गणेश, कृष्ण, इन्द्र)
2. dvijas ... (brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya)
   = द्विजस् ... (ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य)
3. gurus ... (brāhmaṇa, Candrakīrti)
   = गुरुस् ... (ब्राह्मण, चन्द्रकीर्ति)
4. vaiśyas ... (Tulādhara)
   = वैश्यस् ... (तुलाधर)
5. sādhus ... (guru, Rāma)
   = साधुस् ... (गुरु, राम)
6. kavis ... (Kālidāsa, Māgha, Bhāravi, Harṣadeva)
   = कविस् ... (कालिदास, माघ, भारवि, हर्षदेव)

B) Translate into Sanskrit:

1. Rāma is a Brāhmaṇa.
2. The teacher is a Vaiśya.
3. The Śūdra is a holy man.
4. The poet is the teacher.
5. Viṣṇu is the LORD.
6. The LORD is Śiva.
7. The twice-born is a Brāhmaṇa.
8. The holy man is a teacher.
9. The teacher is a holy man.