Lesson 2

2.1. The Nominal Sentence

Schema: Predicate Noun - Subject

e.g. devo viṣṇuḥ = देवो विष्णुः = "Viṣṇu is a god."

A verbal copula ("is", "are", "am", "art", "be") is not necessary, but may sometimes occur.

There are no articles: devaḥ -- देवः can mean "the god" or "a god".

Although in Sanskrit the word order is quite free (especially in verses), when translating a nominal sentence one must always primarily consider a translation according to the standard schema above.

In the nominal sentence, the subject is in the nominative (first case = prathamā f. = प्रथमा). The predicate noun agrees with the subject in number and case; if the predicate noun is an adjective, it also agrees in gender.

2.2. On Declension (Inflection of Nouns)

In Sanskrit there are:

three numbers (forms of counting) = vacana n. -- वचन
Singular (singular number) = ekavacana n. -- एकवचन
Dual (dual number) = dvivacana n. -- द्विवचन
Plural (plural number) = bahuvacana n. -- बहुवचन
three genders (grammatical genders) = liṅga n. / vyakti f. -- लिङ्ग / व्यक्ति
Masculine (masculine) = puṃs m. -- पुंस्
Feminine (feminine) = strī f. -- स्त्री
Neuter (neuter) = napuṃsaka n. -- नपुंसक
eight cases (cases) = sup -- सुप् (= case endings)

To declension, the case endings (sup = सुप्) are added to the so-called nominal stem (form of the noun without case endings).

Example: devas = देवस् (Nominative Singular Masculine) "the/a god" = deva- -- देव- (nominal stem) + -s -- -स् (case ending).

In Sanskrit dictionaries, nouns are listed in the nominal stem:
deva m. -- देव m. (masculine)
vacana n. -- वचन n. (neuter)
vyakti f. -- व्यक्ति f. (feminine)

2.3. The Nominative Singular

Nominative Singular = prathamā ekavacanam = प्रथमा एकवचनम्

The Nominative Singular ends in -s = -स् or is ending-less.

2.3.1. Nominative Singular in -s

The following nominal stems, which end in a vowel, form the Nominative Singular with -s:

Masculines in -a: e.g. deva m. = देव "god" -- Nom. sg.: devas = देवस्
Masculines in -i: e.g. kavi m. = कवि "poet" -- Nom. sg.: kavis = कविस्
Masculines in -u: e.g. guru m. = गुरु "teacher" -- Nom. sg.: gurus = गुरुस्

2.4. Sandhi -- सन्धि

In Sanskrit, the final sound of a word also depends on the initial sound of the following word. This phenomenon is called Sandhi (m.) = सन्धि ("connection").

2.4.1. Sandhi of final -s

See also the overview:

Payer, Alois (1944–): Sandhi of final -s. -- (Materials on Sanskrit). -- URL: http://www.payer.de/sanskritmaterialien/ssandhi.htm

Final -s:

in absolute final position (end of sentence) it becomes Visarga (-ḥ):
devas = देवस् » devaḥ = देवः
kavis = कविस् » kaviḥ = कविः
gurus = गुरुस् » guruḥ = गुरुः

before voiceless sounds:
before k, kh, p, ph and ś, ṣ, s: becomes Visarga (-ḥ)
devas + śivaḥ » devaḥ śivaḥ = देवः शिवः ("Śiva is a god")
before c, ch: becomes -ś
before ṭ, ṭh: becomes -ṣ
before t, th: remains -s
sādhus + caitanyas » sādhuś caitanyaḥ = साधुश्चैतन्यः ("Caitanya is a saint")

before voiced sounds:
after non-a vowels: becomes -r
kavis + Māghas » kavir māghaḥ = कविर्माघः ("Māgha is a poet")
after non-a vowels before r-: -s drops out, the vowel is lengthened.
gurus + rāmas » gurū rāmaḥ = गुरू रामः ("Rāma is a teacher")
after a-: -as
before voiced consonants/a: becomes -o (initial a drops away » ऽ)
devas viṣṇus » devo viṣṇuḥ = देवो विष्णुः
devas agnis » devo 'gniḥ = देवो ऽग्निः
before other vowels: becomes -a (Hiatus)
devas + indras » deva indraḥ = देव इन्द्रः

2.5. Word List

deva m. -- देव : Celestial being, god; prince, king.

īśvara m. -- ईश्वर : Lord, ruler, god (monotheistic).

brāhmaṇa m. -- ब्राह्मण : Brahmin (priestly class).

kṣatriya m. -- क्षत्रिय : Kṣatriya (warrior and ruling class).

vaiśya m. -- वैश्य : Vaiśya (merchant and agricultural class).

śūdra m. -- शूद्र : Śūdra (service class).

According to classical theory (e.g., Manusmṛti I, 88-91), the duties are distributed:

of the Brāhmaṇas
study of the Vedas
teaching (the Vedas)
sacrifice for oneself
sacrifice for others
giving (alms)
receiving gifts
of the Kṣatriyas
protecting the people
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Vaiśyas
cattle breeding
agriculture
trade
money lending
sacrificing for oneself
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Śūdras
serving the three upper classes

dvija m. -- द्विज : "twice-born" (initiates of the upper three castes: Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya).

varṇa m. -- वर्ण : color, birth caste (aspiration).

The four castes (varṇa m.) are often confused with the jāti (caste). However, the four varṇas -- unlike the jāti -- are not specifically Indian; in Europe, we also had a caste system (partly until the First World War), as evidenced by the following illustration from the 15th century:

Fig.: Representation of the estate division in medieval Europe (woodcut from the late 15th century).
(Bildekilde: Detaljer)

Labels:
Clergy (~Brāhmaṇa): Tu supplex ora = You pray supplicatingly!
Nobility (~Kṣatriya): Tu protege = You protect!
Peasantry (~Vaiśya/Śūdra): Tuque labora = And you work!

The three estates wear their respective estate attire. Above them -- thereby designated as willed by God -- Christ reigns on his throne.

Max Weber (1864–1920) defines estate as follows:

»Estate« should mean a multitude of people who, within an association, effectively
a) claim an estate-specific special esteem, - possibly also
b) estate-specific special monopolies.

Estates can arise
a) primarily, through their own estate-specific way of life, including in particular the type of profession (estate-based or occupational estates),
b) secondarily, as hereditary-charismatic status groups, through successful prestige claims based on estate-specific descent (birth estates),
c) through the estate-based appropriation of political or hierocratic lordships as monopolies (political or hierocratic estates).

The development of birth-based status groups is regularly a form of (hereditary) appropriation of privileges by an association or qualified individuals. Any fixed appropriation of opportunities, particularly [of] lordships [or occupational] opportunities, tends to lead to the formation of estates. Any formation of estates tends to lead to the monopolistic appropriation of lordships and occupational opportunities.

While occupational classes grow on the basis of market-oriented economies, estates arise and persist preferably on the basis of monopolistically directed liturgical or feudal or estate-patrimonial provision of needs by associations.

»Estate-based« shall denote a society when its social stratification occurs preferably according to estates, »class-based«, when it occurs preferably according to classes. Of the »classes«, the »social« class is closest to the »estate«, while the »occupational class« is furthest away. Estates are often formed, according to their main focus, by property classes.

Every estate-based society is conventional, ordered through rules of life conduct, thereby creating economically irrational consumption conditions and hindering free market formation in this way through monopolistic appropriations and by excluding the free disposal of one's own earning capacity.

[Weber, Max (1864–1920): Economy and Society : Outline of Understanding Sociology. – 5th, revised ed. – Tübingen : Mohr, 1976. – p. 625 f.]

Varṇas are, accordingly, birth castes.

kavi m. -- कवि : poet.

agni m. -- अग्नि : fire, god Agni.

Fig.: God Agni, miniature painting, 18th century.
(Bildekilde: Detaljer)

sādhu 3 -- साधु : correct, good.

sādhu m. -- साधु : "holy" man, sādhu.

Fig.: Sādhu (साधु), Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu.
(Bildekilde: Detaljer)

guru 3 -- गुरु : heavy, significant, worthy of veneration

guru m. -- गुरु : worthy of veneration person: father, mother, elder relative, esp. teacher, master

2.6. Exercise

A) Insert with due regard to Sandhi and form nominal sentences:

1. devas ... (Śiva, Agni, Viṣṇu, Gaṇeśa, Kṛṣṇa, Indra)
   = देवस् ... (शिव, अग्नि, विष्णु, गणेश, कृष्ण, इन्द्र)
2. dvijas ... (brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya)
   = द्विजस् ... (ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य)
3. gurus ... (brāhmaṇa, Candrakīrti)
   = गुरुस् ... (ब्राह्मण, चन्द्रकीर्ति)
4. vaiśyas ... (Tulādhara)
   = वैश्यस् ... (तुलाधर)
5. sādhus ... (guru, Rāma)
   = साधुस् ... (गुरु, राम)
6. kavis ... (Kālidāsa, Māgha, Bhāravi, Harṣadeva)
   = कविस् ... (कालिदास, माघ, भारवि, हर्षदेव)

B) Translate into Sanskrit:

1. Rāma is a Brāhmaṇa.
2. The teacher is a Vaiśya.
3. The Śūdra is a holy man.
4. The poet is the teacher.
5. Viṣṇu is the LORD.
6. The LORD is Śiva.
7. The twice-born is a Brāhmaṇa.
8. The holy man is a teacher.
9. The teacher is a holy man.