Lesson 3

3.1. Nominative Singular of Feminine Nouns

3.1.1. Nominative Singular ending in -s

The following nominal stems, which end in a vowel, also form the nominative singular with -s:

Feminines in -i: e.g., śruti f. "hearing" -- Nom. sg.: śrutis = श्रुतिस्
Feminines in -u: e.g., dhenu f. "milch cow" -- Nom. sg.: dhenus = धेनुस्

3.1.2. Nominative Singular without ending

The nominative singular is formed without an ending by:

Feminines in -ā: e.g., devatā f. "deity" -- Nom. sg.: devatā = देवता
Feminines in -ī: e.g., devī f. "goddess" -- Nom. sg.: devī = देवी

Attention! In addition, there are monosyllabic feminine root nouns in -ī whose nominative singular ends in -s: e.g., dhī f. "thought" -- Nom. sg.: dhīs = धीस्. Also, lakṣmī (लक्ष्मी) f., tarī (तरी) f. "boat", and tantrī (तन्त्री) f. "string" form the nominative singular irregularly with -s: lakṣmīs = लक्ष्मीस्.

3.2. Formation of Feminines from Masculines

Masculines in -a:
Feminine in -ā: e.g., kṣatriya m. » kṣatriyā f. "Kṣatriya woman" = क्षत्रिया
Feminine in -ī: e.g., brāhmaṇa m. » brāhmaṇī f. "Brahmin woman" = ब्राह्मणी

Masculines in -u:
Feminine in -ī: e.g., sādhu m. » sādhvī f. (good, holy woman) = साध्वी
(-u- becomes -v- before a vowel, hence -u- + -ī » -vī)

3.3. Nominative Plural Masculine and Feminine

The ending of the Nominative Plural in Masculine and Feminine is -as.
Masculines ending in -a: deva- + -as » devās = देवास्
Feminines ending in -ā: devatā- + -as » devatās = देवतास्
Masculines ending in -i: kavi- » kave- + -as » kavayas = कवयस्
Feminines ending in -i: śruti- » śrute- + -as » śrutayas = श्रुतयस्
Feminines ending in -ī: devī- + -as » devyas = देव्यस्
Masculines ending in -u: guru- » guro- + -as » guravas = गुरवस्
Feminines ending in -u: dhenu- » dheno- + -as » dhenavas = धेनवस्

Note: e is the strong grade (guṇa) of i, and o is the strong grade of u.

3.4. Vocalic Sandhi

Simple vowels that differ only in length or not at all "merge" into the corresponding long vowel:
a / -ā + a- / ā- » -ā-
i / -ī + i- / ī- » -ī-
u / -ū + u- / ū- » -ū-
(-ṛ + ṛ- » -ṝ-)

e.g.

devatā + annapūrṇā » devatānnapūrṇā "Annapūrṇā is a deity" = देवतान्नपूर्णा

(Annapūrṇā is the goddess of food and cooking; she is considered an embodiment of Pārvatī, the consort of Śiva.)

devī + indrāṇī » devīndrāṇī "Indrāṇī is a goddess" = देवीन्द्राणी

(Indrāṇī is the consort of the god Indra.)

Fig.: Indra and Indrāṇī on the elephant Airavata, miniature painting, Rājasthān, 1670/80
(Image source: Details)

Simple vowels (except -a / -ā) are replaced by the corresponding semivowel before dissimilar vowels:
i / -ī » -y-
u / -ū » -v-
ṛ » -r-
(!! There are exceptions to this rule, particularly for dual forms !!)

e.g.

devī + umā » devy umā "Umā is a / the goddess" = देव्युमा

(Umā is a name for Pārvatī, the consort of Śiva)

-a / -ā before a dissimilar vowel:
a / -ā + i- / ī- » -e-
a / -ā + ṛ- » -ar-
a / -ā + e- / ai- » -ai-
a / -ā + o- / au- » -au-

The following scheme applies to this Sandhi:

(Image source: Details)

See later regarding this so-called stem gradation!

e.g.

śūdrā + itarā » śudretarā "Itarā is a Śūdra woman" = शूद्रेतरा

3.5. Sentence Sandhi of -ās

-ās is replaced by -ā before all voiced sounds.

e.g.

dvijās + vaiśyāḥ » dvijā vaiśyāḥ "Vaiśyas are twice-born" = द्विजा वैश्याः

3.6. Word List

Learn the following words:

śruti f. = श्रुति : hearing, the eternal tradition (designation for the Vedas and Brāhmaṇas).

smṛti f. = स्मृति : recollection, memory, meditative recollection = mindfulness, tradition (counterpart to śruti). Includes:
the six vedāṅga n. (वेदाङ्ग)

1. śikṣā f. (शिक्षा): correct pronunciation
2. chandas n. (छन्दस्): meter
3. vyākaraṇa n. (व्याकरण): grammar
4. nirukta n. (निरुक्त) : word explanation, etymology
5. jyotiṣa n. (ज्योतिष) : astronomy, calendar science
6. kalpa m. (कल्प) : ritual
   śrautasūtra n. (श्रौतसूत्र) : treatises on the performance of great sacrifices
   gṛhyasūtra n. (गृह्यसूत्र) : treatises on the ceremonies and sacrifices of daily life
   dharmasūtra n. (धर्मसूत्र) and dharmaśāstra n. (धर्मशास्त्र) : treatises on law and custom (right conduct)
   the great epics mahābhārata n. (महाभारत) and rāmāyaṇa n. (रामायण)
   the purāṇa n. (पुराण)
   nītiśāstra n. (नीतिशास्त्र) : treatises on worldly wisdom

smṛti is also particularly a designation for Dharma treatises.

dhenu f. = धेनु : (milk) cow.

paśu m. = पशु : domesticated livestock, cattle (collective).

devatā f. = देवता : deity (abstract and concrete).

brāhmaṇī f. = ब्राह्मणी : Brahmin woman.

kṣatriyā f. = क्षत्रिया : female Kṣatriya.

kṣatriyī f. = क्षत्रियी : wife of a Kṣatriya.

vaiśyā f. = वैश्या : female Vaiśya.

śūdrā f. = शूद्रा : female Śūdra.

śūdrī f. / śūdrāṇī f. = शूद्री शूद्राणी : wife of a Śūdra.

devī f. = देवी : goddess, esp. Durgā f. = दुर्गा, the consort of Śiva = शिव.

Fig.: Durgā = दुर्गा, Orissa
(Image source: Details)

sādhvī f. = साध्वी : fem. of sādhu.

gurvī f. = गुर्वी : fem. of guru.

asmitā f. = अस्मिता : "I-ness", i.e. the (false) belief: I am the one who sees etc.

ānvīkṣikī f. = आन्वीक्षिकी : philosophy (the science that arrives at its conclusions through logically correct reasoning).

upekṣā f. = उपेक्षा : non-attention, equanimity.

karuṇā f. = करुणा : compassion, pity.

muditā f. = मुदिता : joy, especially sympathetic joy (opposite of envy).

3.7. Exercise

A) Put the following sentences into the plural:

1. dvijo brāhmaṇaḥ = द्विजो ब्राह्मणः
2. dvijaḥ kṣatriyaḥ = द्विजः क्षत्रियः
3. dvijo vaiśyaḥ = द्विजो वैश्यः
4. gurur brāhmaṇaḥ = गुरुर्ब्राह्मणः
5. sādhur guruḥ = साधुर्गुरुः
6. guruḥ kaviḥ = गुरुः कविः
7. sādhvī brāhmaṇī = साध्वी ब्राह्मणी
8. devatā guruḥ = देवता गुरुः
9. paśur dhenuḥ = पशुर्धेनुः
10. gurvī sādhvī = गुर्वी साध्वी

B) Form nominal sentences by inserting:

1. śrutis ... (veda) = श्रुतिस् ... वेद
2. paśus ... (dhenu) = पशुस् ... धेनु
3. devī ... (durgā, umā, indrāṇī) = देवी ... दुर्गा, उमा, इन्द्राणी
4. devatā ... (mīnākṣī, annapūrṇā) = देवता ... मीनाक्षी, अन्नपूर्णा
5. śūdrā ... (itarā) = शूद्रा ... इतरा

C) Translate into the feminine:

1. gurur brāhmaṇaḥ = गुरुर्ब्राह्मणः
2. sādhur guruḥ = साधुर्गुरुः
3. kṣatriyaḥ sādhuḥ = क्षत्रियः साधुः

D) Translate into Sanskrit:

1. Umā is a goddess.
2. The Veda is śruti.
3. The female teachers are goddesses.
4. Milk cows are domesticated animals.
5. Poets are teachers.
6. Kṣatriyas are twice-born.
7. The holy men are Śūdras.