Lekcija 2

2.1. Nominalna rečenica

Šema: Predikatska imenica - Subjekt

npr. devo viṣṇuḥ = देवो विष्णुः = "Viṣṇu je bog."

Verbalna kopula ("je", "jesu", "sam", "si", "ste") nije potrebna, ali se ponekad može pojaviti.

Ne postoje člani: devaḥ -- देवः može značiti "bog" ili "jedan bog".

Iako je u sanskrtu red reči prilično slobodan (posebno u stihovima), pri prevodu nominalne rečenice treba se prvenstveno osloniti na standardnu šemu navedenu gore.

U nominalnoj rečenici subjekt je u nominativu (prvi padež = prathamā ž. rođ. = प्रथमा). Predikatska imenica slaže se sa subjektom u broju i padežu; ako je predikatska imenica pridev, slaže se i u rodu.

2.2. O deklinaciji (slogovnom oblikovanju imenica)

U sanskrtu postoje:

tri broja (brojne forme) = vacana sred. rođ. -- वचन
Singular (jednina) = ekavacana sred. rođ. -- एकवचन
Dual (dvojina) = dvivacana sred. rođ. -- द्विवचन
Plural (množina) = bahuvacana sred. rođ. -- बहुवचन
tri roda (gramatički rodovi) = liṅga sred. rođ. / vyakti ž. rođ. -- लिङ्ग / व्यक्ति
Muški rod = puṃs muž. rođ. -- पुंस्
Ženski rod = strī ž. rođ. -- स्त्री
Srednji rod = napuṃsaka sred. rođ. -- नपुंसक
osam padeža = sup -- सुप् (= padežni nastavci)

Uz deklinaciju pridružuju se padežni nastavci (sup = सुप्) na tako zvani temelj imenice (oblik imenice bez padežnih nastavaka).

Example: devas = देवस् (Nominative Singular Masculine) "the/a god" = deva- -- देव- (nominal stem) + -s -- -स् (case ending).

In Sanskrit dictionaries, nouns are listed in the nominal stem:
deva m. -- देव m. (masculine)
vacana n. -- वचन n. (neuter)
vyakti f. -- व्यक्ति f. (feminine)

2.3. The Nominative Singular

Nominative Singular = prathamā ekavacanam = प्रथमा एकवचनम्

The Nominative Singular ends in -s = -स् or is ending-less.

2.3.1. Nominative Singular in -s

The following nominal stems, which end in a vowel, form the Nominative Singular with -s:

Masculines in -a: e.g. deva m. = देव "god" -- Nom. sg.: devas = देवस्
Masculines in -i: e.g. kavi m. = कवि "poet" -- Nom. sg.: kavis = कविस्
Masculines in -u: e.g. guru m. = गुरु "teacher" -- Nom. sg.: gurus = गुरुस्

2.4. Sandhi -- सन्धि

In Sanskrit, the final sound of a word also depends on the initial sound of the following word. This phenomenon is called Sandhi (m.) = सन्धि ("connection").

2.4.1. Sandhi of final -s

See also the overview:

Payer, Alois (1944–): Sandhi of final -s. -- (Materials on Sanskrit). -- URL: http://www.payer.de/sanskritmaterialien/ssandhi.htm

Final -s:

in absolute final position (end of sentence) it becomes Visarga (-ḥ):
devas = देवस् » devaḥ = देवः
kavis = कविस् » kaviḥ = कविः
gurus = गुरुस् » guruḥ = गुरुः

before voiceless consonants:
before k, kh, p, ph and ś, ṣ, s: becomes Visarga (-ḥ)
devas + śivaḥ » devaḥ śivaḥ = देवः शिवः ("Śiva is a god")
before c, ch: becomes -ś
before ṭ, ṭh: becomes -ṣ
before t, th: remains -s
sādhus + caitanyas » sādhuś caitanyaḥ = साधुश्चैतन्यः ("Caitanya is a saint")

before voiced consonants:
after non-a vowels: becomes -r
kavis + Māghas » kavir māghaḥ = कविर्माघः ("Māgha is a poet")
after non-a vowels before r-: -s drops out, the vowel is lengthened.
gurus + rāmas » gurū rāmaḥ = गुरू रामः ("Rāma is a teacher")
after a-: -as
before voiced consonants/a: becomes -o (initial a drops away » ऽ)
devas viṣṇus » devo viṣṇuḥ = देवो विष्णुः
devas agnis » devo 'gniḥ = देवो ऽग्निः
before other vowels: becomes -a (Hiatus)
devas + indras » deva indraḥ = देव इन्द्रः

2.5. Vocabulary List

deva m. -- देव : Celestial being, god; prince, king.

īśvara m. -- ईश्वर : Lord, ruler, god (monotheistic).

brāhmaṇa m. -- ब्राह्मण : Brahmin (priestly class).

kṣatriya m. -- क्षत्रिय : Kṣatriya (warrior and ruling class).

vaiśya m. -- वैश्य : Vaiśya (merchant and agricultural class).

śūdra m. -- शूद्र : Śūdra (service class).

According to classical theory (e.g., Manusmṛti I, 88-91), the duties are distributed:

of the Brāhmaṇas
study of the Vedas
teaching (the Vedas)
sacrifice for oneself
sacrifice for others
giving (alms)
receiving gifts
of the Kṣatriyas
protecting the people
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Vaiśyas
cattle breeding
agriculture
trade
money lending
sacrificing for oneself
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Śūdras
serving the three upper classes

dvija m. -- द्विज : "twice-born" (initiates of the upper three castes: Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya).

varṇa m. -- वर्ण : color, birth caste (aspiration).

The four castes (varṇa m.) are often confused with the jāti (caste). However, the four varṇas -- unlike the jāti -- are not specifically Indian; in Europe, we also had a caste system (partly until the First World War), as evidenced by the following illustration from the 15th century:

Fig.: Representation of the estate division in medieval Europe (woodcut from the late 15th century).
(Image source: Details)

Labels:
Priestly estate (~Brāhmaṇa): Tu supplex ora = You pray supplicatingly!
Noble estate (~Kṣatriya): Tu protege = You protect!
Peasant estate (~Vaiśya/Śūdra): Tuque labora = And you work!

The three estates wear their respective estate attire. Above them -- thereby designated as willed by God -- Christ reigns on his throne.

Max Weber (1864–1920) defines estate as follows:

»Estate« should mean a multitude of people who, within an association, effectively
a) claim an estate-specific special esteem, - possibly also
b) estate-specific special monopolies.

Kaste mogu nastati
a) primarno, kroz vlastiti kastinski način života, uključujući posebno vrstu posla (kastinski razredi po životnom stilu ili poslu),
b) sekundarno, nasljedno-karizmatički, kroz uspješne zahtjeve za prestižom na temelju kastinskog podrijetla (rođeni kasti),
c) kroz kastinsku aproprijaciju političkih ili hijerokratskih vlasti kao monopola (politički odnosno hijerokratski kasti).

Razvoj rođenih kastina redovito je oblik (nasljedne) aproprijacije privilegija na zbor ili kvalificirane pojedince. Svaka čvrsta aproprijacija prilika, posebno [od] gospodara [vlasti ili mogućnosti zarade], sklonija je dovesti do formiranja kastina. Svako formiranje kasti sklonije je dovesti do monopolističke aproprijacije gospodarskih vlasti i mogućnosti zarade.

Dok se razredi zarada razvijaju na temelju tržišno orijentirane ekonomije, kasti nastaju i postoje preferencijalno na temelju monopolistički vođene liturgijske ili feudalne ili kastinsko-patrimonijalne pokrivenosti potreba zborova.

»Kastinski« društvo treba nazivati ako je socijalna podjela preferencijalno po kastama, »klasno«, ako je preferencijalno po klasama. Od »klasa« najbliža je »socijalna« klasa, a najudaljenija »klasa zarade«. Kasti se često formiraju prema svom središtu kroz klase posjeda.

Svako kastinsko društvo je konvencionalno, uređeno pravilima životnog stila, stoga ekonomski iracionalne uvjete potrošnje i na ovaj način kroz monopolističke aproprijacije i isključenje slobodnog raspolaganja vlastitom sposobnošću zarade sprječava slobodni razvoj tržišta.

[Weber, Max (1864–1920): Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft : Grundriss der verstehenden Soziologie. – 5., revidierte Aufl. – Tübingen : Mohr, 1976. – S. 625 f.]

Varṇas are, accordingly, birth castes.

kavi m. -- कवि : poet.

agni m. -- अग्नि : fire, god Agni.

Fig.: God Agni, miniature, 18th century.
(Image source: Details)

sādhu 3 -- साधु : correct, good.

sādhu m. -- साधु : "holy" man, sādhu.

Fig.: Sādhu (साधु), Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu.
(Image source: Details)

guru 3 -- गुरु : heavy, significant, venerable

guru m. -- गुरु : venerable person: father, mother, older relative, esp. teacher, master

2.6. Exercise

A) Insert with due regard to Sandhi and form nominal sentences:

1. devas ... (Śiva, Agni, Viṣṇu, Gaṇeśa, Kṛṣṇa, Indra)
   = देवस् ... (शिव, अग्नि, विष्णु, गणेश, कृष्ण, इन्द्र)
2. dvijas ... (brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya)
   = द्विजस् ... (ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य)
3. gurus ... (brāhmaṇa, Candrakīrti)
   = गुरुस् ... (ब्राह्मण, चन्द्रकीर्ति)
4. vaiśyas ... (Tulādhara)
   = वैश्यस् ... (तुलाधर)
5. sādhus ... (guru, Rāma)
   = साधुस् ... (गुरु, राम)
6. kavis ... (Kālidāsa, Māgha, Bhāravi, Harṣadeva)
   = कविस् ... (कालिदास, माघ, भारवि, हर्षदेव)

B) Translate into Sanskrit:

1. Rāma is a brāhmaṇa.
2. The teacher is a vaiśya.
3. The śūdra is a holy man.
4. The poet is the teacher.
5. Viṣṇu is the LORD.
6. The LORD is Śiva.
7. The twice-born is a brāhmaṇa.
8. The holy man is a teacher.
9. The teacher is a holy man.