Lekce 2

2.1. Jmenový věta

Schéma: Predikativní podstatné jméno - Subjekt

např. devo viṣṇuḥ = देवो विष्णुः = "Viṣṇu je bůh."

Slovesné spojení ("je", "jsou", "jsem", "jsi", "jste") není nutné, ale může se někdy vyskytovat.

Neexistují žádné členy: devaḥ -- देवः může znamenat "bůh" nebo "jeden bůh".

Ačkoli je ve sanskrtu slovosled poměrně volný (zejména v verších), je třeba při překladu jmenové věty vždy především zvážit překlad podle výše uvedeného standardního schématu.

V jmenové větě stojí subjekt v nominativu (první pád = prathamā f. = प्रथमा). Predikativní podstatné jméno souhlasí se subjektem v čísle a pádu; pokud je predikativní podstatné jméno přídavným jménem, také v rodě.

2.2. O deklinaci (skloňování podstatných jmen)

Ve sanskrtu existují:

tři čísla (počtové tvary) = vacana n. -- वचन
singulár (jednotné číslo) = ekavacana n. -- एकवचन
duál (dvojné číslo) = dvivacana n. -- द्विवचन
plurál (množné číslo) = bahuvacana n. -- बहुवचन
tři rody (gramatické rody) = liṅga n. / vyakti f. -- लिङ्ग / व्यक्ति
maskulinum (mužský rod) = puṃs m. -- पुंस्
femininum (ženský rod) = strī f. -- स्त्री
neutrum (střední rod) = napuṃsaka n. -- नपुंसक
osm pádů = sup -- सुप् (= pádové koncovky)

K deklinaci přistupují pádové koncovky (sup = सुप्) na tzv. kmen podstatného jména (tvar podstatného jména bez pádových koncovek).

Example: devas = देवस् (Nominative Singular Masculine) "the/a god" = deva- -- देव- (nominal stem) + -s -- -स् (case ending).

In Sanskrit dictionaries, nouns are listed in the nominal stem:
deva m. -- देव m. (masculine)
vacana n. -- वचन n. (neuter)
vyakti f. -- व्यक्ति f. (feminine)

2.3. The Nominative Singular

Nominative Singular = prathamā ekavacanam = प्रथमा एकवचनम्

The Nominative Singular ends in -s = -स् or is ending-less.

2.3.1. Nominative Singular in -s

The following nominal stems, which end in a vowel, form the Nominative Singular with -s:

Masculines in -a: e.g. deva m. = देव "god" -- Nom. sg.: devas = देवस्
Masculines in -i: e.g. kavi m. = कवि "poet" -- Nom. sg.: kavis = कविस्
Masculines in -u: e.g. guru m. = गुरु "teacher" -- Nom. sg.: gurus = गुरुस्

2.4. Sandhi -- सन्धि

In Sanskrit, the final sound of a word also depends on the initial sound of the following word. This phenomenon is called Sandhi (m.) = सन्धि ("connection").

2.4.1. Sandhi of final -s

2.5. Wortliste

deva m. -- देव : Himmlischer, Gott; Fürst, König.

īśvara m. -- ईश्वर : Herr, Herrscher, Gott (monotheistisch).

brāhmaṇa m. -- ब्राह्मण : Brahmane (geistlicher Stand).

kṣatriya m. -- क्षत्रिय : Kṣatriya (vürstide ja sõdalaste seisus).

vaiśya m. -- वैश्य : Vaiśya (toitjate ja kaupmeeste seisus).

śūdra m. -- शूद्र : Śūdra (Dienstleistungsstand).

Klassikalise teooria kohaselt (nt Manusmṛti I, 88-91) on ülesanded jaotatud:

of the Brāhmaṇas
study of the Vedas
teaching (the Vedas)
sacrifice for oneself
sacrifice for others
giving (gifts)
receiving gifts
of the Kṣatriyas
protecting the people
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Vaiśyas
cattle breeding
agriculture
trade
money lending
sacrificing for oneself
giving gifts (to Brāhmaṇas)
sacrificing for oneself
study of the Vedas
of the Śūdras
serving the three upper classes

dvija m. -- द्विज : "twice-born" (initiates of the upper three castes: Brāhmaṇa, Kṣatriya, Vaiśya).

varṇa m. -- वर्ण : color, birth caste (aspiration).

The four castes (varṇa m.) are often confused with the hereditary caste system. However, the four castes -- unlike the hereditary castes -- are not specifically Indian; in Europe as well, we had (partly up to the First World War) a caste-like estate system, as illustrated by the following image from the 15th century:

Fig.: Representation of the estate division in medieval Europe (woodcut from the late 15th century).
(Image source: Details)

Labels:
Clergy (~Brāhmaṇa): Tu supplex ora = You pray supplicatingly!
Nobility (~Kṣatriya): Tu protege = You protect!
Peasantry (~Vaiśya/Śūdra): Tuque labora = And you work!

The three estates wear their respective estate attire. Above them -- thereby designated as willed by God -- Christ reigns on his throne.

Max Weber (1864–1920) defines estate as follows:

»Estate« should mean a multitude of people who, within an association, effectively
a) claim an estate-specific special esteem, - possibly also
b) estate-specific special monopolies.

Stände können entstehen
a) primarily, through one's own estate-specific way of life, particularly through the nature of the profession (estate-specific or professional estates),
b) secondarily, by hereditary charisma, through successful prestige claims based on estate-specific descent (birth estates),
c) through estate-specific appropriation of political or hierocratic lordships as monopolies (political or hierocratic estates).

The birth-estate development is regularly a form of (hereditary) appropriation of privileges by a group or by qualified individuals. Any fixed appropriation of opportunities, particularly [of] lordship [powers or occupational] opportunities, tends to lead to estate formation. Any estate formation tends to lead to the monopolistic appropriation of lordships and occupational opportunities.

While occupational classes grow on the basis of market-oriented economy, estates arise and exist preferably on the basis of the monopolistically led liturgical or the feudal or the estate-patrimonial provision of needs of groups.

»Estate-specific« should mean a society if the social division is preferably according to estates, »class-like«, if it is preferably according to classes. Of the »classes«, the »social« class is closest to the »estate«, the »occupational class« is furthest away. Estates are often formed by property classes according to their focus.

Every estate society is conventional, ordered by rules of life conduct, thereby creates economically irrational consumption conditions and hinders free market formation in this way through monopolistic appropriations and by excluding free disposal over one's own earning capacity.

kavi m. -- कवि : poet.

agni m. -- अग्नि : fire, god Agni.

Fig.: God Agni, miniature painting, 18th century.
(Image source: Details)

sādhu 3 -- साधु : correct, good.

sādhu m. -- साधु : "holy" man, sādhu.

Fig.: Sādhu (साधु), Pashupatinath Temple, Kathmandu.
(Image source: Details)

guru 3 -- गुरु : heavy, significant, worthy of veneration

guru m. -- गुरु : worthy of veneration person: father, mother, elder relative, esp. teacher, master

2.6. Exercise

A) Insert with due regard to Sandhi and form nominal sentences:

devas ... (Śiva, Agni, Viṣṇu, Gaṇeśa, Kṛṣṇa, Indra)
= देवस् ... (शिव, अग्नि, विष्णु, गणेश, कृष्ण, इन्द्र)
dvijas ... (brāhmaṇa, kṣatriya, vaiśya)
= द्विजस् ... (ब्राह्मण, क्षत्रिय, वैश्य)
gurus ... (brāhmaṇa, Candrakīrti)
= गुरुस् ... (ब्राह्मण, चन्द्रकीर्ति)
vaiśyas ... (Tulādhara)
= वैश्यस् ... (तुलाधर)
sādhus ... (guru, Rāma)
= साधुस् ... (गुरु, राम)
kavis ... (Kālidāsa, Māgha, Bhāravi, Harṣadeva)
= कविस् ... (कालिदास, माघ, भारवि, हर्षदेव)

B) Translate into Sanskrit:

Rāma is a Brāhmaṇa.
The teacher is a Vaiśya.
The Śūdra is a holy man.
The poet is the teacher.
Viṣṇu is the LORD.
The LORD is Śiva.
The twice-born is a Brāhmaṇa.
The holy man is a teacher.
The teacher is a holy man.

Lekce 2 ​

2.1. Jmenový věta ​

2.2. O deklinaci (skloňování podstatných jmen) ​

2.3. The Nominative Singular ​

2.3.1. Nominative Singular in -s ​

2.4. Sandhi -- सन्धि ​

2.4.1. Sandhi of final -s ​

2.5. Wortliste ​

2.6. Exercise ​